This image can be used to relate the meaning of discrimination.
Flash Cards
We use these flash cards to model speaking, for physical response and error correction.
Yes/ no questions are a good way to assess comprehension. The flash cards in part B scaffold yes/ no answers with forms of be, do and pronouns. They can prompt choral speaking. With some instruction and drilling, students can discern production of “do” and “be” questions and answers.
Tom’s Resources 1
Vocabulary Acquisition
While this source is both a summary of a book and about myths, what it offers is none-the-less important In fact, the first myth (of eight) gets right to the point: “In learning another language, vocabulary is not as important as grammar or other areas” (False, 2014). Vocabulary supplies the building blocks for understanding. In a strange way this is evident in the fact that we can communicate with single words: Eat. Run! Fire! Now? Many aspects of the myths presented seem to stem from the more recent desire to teach language as simply communicating; typically orally. But even in this vocabulary can either aid the ELL nor hinder their practice. Things such as word lists, according to Folse (2014), and translations are helpful in learning vocabulary. Much of the breaking down of these myths points very clearly at an explicit teaching of vocabulary. Part of the mythic problem is that many assume “vocabulary [will] grow as naturally and easily as first language vocabulary, through exposure to comprehensible input” (Folse, 2014). While this is in part true it is not near as complete or full as the ELL needs. Also, knowing vocabulary is more than knowing single words. ELLs must know phrases and collocation. Often the ELL struggles, even though they know what they want to say, simply because they do not have the words or phrases. Folse offers a very even view of vocabulary teaching. For example, while he says to use lists he also cautions not to depend on them. Part of Folse’s prescribed vocabulary teaching also includes the use of thematic lessons as probable aids in vocabulary acquisition. From this source we can learn: 1)1) what current research might say and how that might be either in error or correct; 2) we can see how vocabulary theory differs from vocabulary use in the real world; 3) Folse (2014) gives examples of what the teacher can do to aid ELL vocabulary acquisition: teach strategies such as context clues, not rely on one strategy, and teach vocabulary to some extent in every lesson. In the end, Folse (2014) seems to suggest a vocabulary acquisition plan that entails whatever works for the students as opposed to what is currently trending.
Folse. (2014). Vocabulary Myths: Applying Second Language Research To
Classroom Teaching. [website]. Retrieved from
Reading Strategies for Fluency
The goal of reading is more than just reading the words on the page; much as the goal of listening is more than simply hearing. One such goal for reading is fluency. But what is fluency? According to Ford (2012), “Fluency is the ability to read words accurately and automatically with expression”. Reading fluency connects word recognition, comprehension, and more native intonation when reading. It is through fluency that the ELL begins to both understand and sound more natural. Assessing fluency is a matter of tallying the errors in reading so that a teacher can chose the appropriate leveled text for the student. This typically, a in Ford (2014), is broken down into independent, instructional, and frustration levels. Each level depends on reading accuracy and can direct the teacher to the correct classroom and independent reading texts for the ELL. A quick process is also given for doing this assessment of fluency. Reading rate is also discussed with a respective procedure and numbers. Teachers are cautioned, however, to combine a teaching of fluency with a teaching of comprehension as some students lacking in fluency are apt to understand more than might appear. This source can be helpful in the following ways: 1) clear definitions of fluency, preside (language sound), automaticity (rate), and accuracy are given; 2) level numbers are given to aid in assessing ELLs in a data-backed way; 3) information is given with the level data such that the level becomes helpful to the teachers and more than a mere label. Reading fluency, combined with comprehension, can help the ELL approach native-like language use.
Ford, K. (2012). ELLs and Reading Fluency in English. Retrieved from
Writing Error Correction
While there is some disagreement as to which writing errors to correct first, the small ones (grammar) or the large ones (content) this source offers a good discussion of both. Shoebottom (2014) begins by addressing the four major small (my term) errors: spelling, punctuation, grammar, and usage. Each of these sections have links that offer either practice identifying the relevant type of error or further information. One suggestion for correcting spelling errors is extensive reading. Extensive reading “is a very good way in the longer term to learn English spelling patterns, so that mistakes are less likely” (Shoebottom, 2014). Add to this the fact that extensive reading aids in vocabulary acquisition, see that post, and extensive reading becomes very clearly an important ELL, and non-ELL, classroom activity. While much of the article is devoted to these four writing errors it is important to remember that “there are aspects of writing that are much more important than the presence of small mistakes of spelling, grammar or usage” (Shoebottom, 2014). These are the larger, often more difficult to teach, problems. Shoebottom (2014) offers six great questions that the ELL should look at in terms of their writing. This source is helpful in the following ways: 1) it clearly presents the four small errors and the larger category of content questions; 2) practice and further information on the errors is available through this article; 3) Shoebottom (2014) has presented questions for the larger errors that go from prompt to paragraph unity–all in questions that students could begin to work on themselves and at a later date be self-directed to both ask and answer.
Shoebottom, P. (2014). Understanding writing mistakes. [website]. Retrieved from
Visuals in the ELL Classroom
Sometimes, quite often probably, reading words is not enough. The ELL often needs to see a word or idea to have it cement in their mind. Visuals are thus important. This slide show presents examples, shows how to create visuals, and how to use them so that they work in the classroom. Visuals you might use can be flashcards, charts, pictures, blackboard, yourself & others (Lowry, E., 2008). Visuals can also be manipulative. That is, things that the students can touch and manipulate. Using manipulative can be of benefit to all students, but in particular to those who learn more visually and kinesthetically. Manipulative can allow the students to both process and sort the information at their own speed (Lowry, E., 2008). Visuals and manipulative can help introduce and can be used to teach a number of language elements including vocabulary. The slideshow gives ideas on how to best make flashcards and how to sort them. It also gives ideas for pictures, charts and videos. Lowry (2008) also discusses Big Books and Picture Books. Also discussed are sequence strips which can aid kinesthetically and visually with reading, writing and speaking (probably listening, too). The source can be helpful in the following ways: 1) it offers a large number of specific examples of visuals and manipulative that a teacher might be used (most mentioned already but also graphic organizers); 2) this source also discusses the long lost visual aid–the black(white) board. This is a visual aid that, probably due to technology, has gone out of favor but which both works and is enjoyable to particularly younger students; 3) this source offers visuals for the teacher to see (slide 29 offers some greater pictures of pasteboard presentations). The importance of visuals in the ESL/EFL classroom cannot be overstated. At almost every level visuals help increase both comprehension and interest.
Lowry, E. (2008). Using Visual Aids & Manipulatives. . Retrieved from
http://www.slideshare.net/irwyn12/using-visual-aids-manipulatives-in-efl-
Guided Reading
Guided reading is an important part of reading comprehension. By implementing guided reading, “teachers not only model strategies but transfer the gradual release of responsibility for pre-, during-, and postreading strategy use to students” (Marinaccio-Eckel, P. & Donahue, J., 2009). In this way, guided reading is but one of the ways to transform the ELL into a more autonomous learner. In this source pre-reading, such as assessing background knowledge and previewing topic, are discussed. Also discussed is the idea that students need to be able to do more than answer questions about the text; they need to be able to think critically about it. In getting lost in the details of a text, students often do nothing more after reading a text than retelling what occurred.The authors of this text suggest that students need to do more with the larger meaning of the text. This source can be used in the following ways: 1) it can validate a teacher’s use of guided reading. Guided reading “allows teachers to scaffold, model, and discuss independent reading strategies guided by student needs” (Marinaccio-Eckel, P. & Donahue, J., 2009); 2) as an acknowledgement of the importance of activating the ELL’s background knowledge; 3) for specific examples; such as using story maps to teach text structures. Guided reading is an active form of reading. It brings the text and the student close together in a way that the student can learn both to use their new language and to think critically about topic and text.
Marinaccio-Eckel, P. & Donahue, J. (2009). The Critical Role of Guided Oral Reading for English
Language Learners. [website]. Retrieved from http://www.tesol.org/read-and-publish/journals/other-serial-publications/compleat-links/compleat-links-volume-6-issue-3-4-(october-2009)/the-critical-role-of-guided-oral-reading-for-english-language-learners
Miscue Analysis
Miscue analysis is an important part of teaching and assessing reading. Miscues “are not simply random mistakes, but form patterns that reveal useful information about children’s reading abilities” (Argyle, 1989, p. 93). The source listed below offers a step-by-step guide to conducting a miscue analysis in the classroom. It also offers a coding system for use while conducting the analysis; with examples. A case study is also offered to illustrate what is discussed. This source can be used in the following ways: 1) as a resource for figuring out how to notate during the miscue analysis; 2) as a resource for how to summarize the data (a nice sheet is presented in the case study); 3) as a rational for using or conducting a miscue analysis in the classroom. In the end “teachers and students benefit when miscues are analyzed in a way that leads to classroom activities which add to the students” (Argyle, 1989, p. 101). A miscue analysis, far from simply identifying errors should direct teaching and learning to increase reading proficiency.
Argyle, S. (1989). Miscue Analysis for Classroom Use. Reading Horizons. Retrived
Writing
The website below discusses and presents a writing system known as RAFT. This writing system seems good in that it draws to the fore of the ELL writer’s mind the fact that they are a writer, with a purpose, and an audience with who they have a relationship. This relationship may change, however, and RAFT teaches the students not only to write but to be aware of this changing relationship in a very meta-writing way. According to Simon (2014) , “RAFT helps students focus on the audience they will address, the varied formats for writing, and the topic they’ll be writing about”. Thus, RAFT stands for Role of the writer, Audience, Format, Topic. This site can be used in the following ways: 1) you could learn about and implement the RAFT writing system in our class or school; 2) you can see how the various lessons align with your state standards (this site offers great links to state standards by grade); 3) you could use this site as a source of resources (it has a great many printouts and links to leveled writing topics). Much as the reading site did, this site offers both complete lesson ideas and adaptable material for related activities.
Simon, C. (2014). Using the RAFT Writing Strategy. ReadWriteThink. [website]. Retrieved
from http://www.readwritethink.org/professional-development/strategy-guides/using-raft-
TESOL Tips & Tricks for Teachers 